Human Development Theory And Social Work Issues Social Work Essay

Human Development Theory And Social Work Issues Social Work Essay This study deals with the utility of human development theory in understanding practical social work issues. It takes up the case of the Murray family (provided in the appendix to this essay) and using the family as a base, attempts to apply different aspects of human development theory in a practical real life scenario. The study is divided into five specific sections. The first section briefly describes the circumstances of the Murray family. This is followed by the application of two theories of human development, (a) Erik Eriksons psychosocial development theory and Bronfenbrenners Ecological Model of Human Development, to understand child and adult development, (b) the ways in which political and social processes influence human development, (c) the role of inequalities in human development, and (d) the ways in which theories of human development underpin social work knowledge and values. The Murray family scenario is elaborated in detail in the appendix to this study and is thus being taken up briefly here. Jack (43) and Evelyn (36) Murray stay with their daughter Lora (6) and Evelyns mother Doris (71). Jack has two other sons, Seb (17) and David (15), who live separately. Jack Murray was an adopted child. He was brought up by parents who were open about his adopted status and has never shown any inclination to trace his biological parents. Jack has alcohol related problems and is prone towards domestic violence. Evelyn has been hurt and that too badly, in the recent past. Lora is doing well in school and is cared for by Doris, who is however becoming frail. She had to be placed in an emergency foster care environment during her summer holidays, even as her mother made use of a womens shelter to escape the difficulties of her home. Doris worries about being separated from her granddaughter and family if she were to go to a care home. All family members have expressed their willingness to work with a social worker. Application of Theories of Human Development Erik Eriksons theory of human development was first advanced in 1950 and has been significantly augmented in later years (Brenman-Gibson, 1997, p 329). Eriksons psychosocial theory states that life can be segregated into 8 stages from birth to death, which comprise of (a) infancy (birth to 18 months), (b) early childhood (18 months to 3 years), (c) play age (3 to 5 years), (d) school age (5 to 12 years), (e) adolescence (12 to 18 years), (f) young adulthood (18 to 35 years), (g) middle adulthood (35 to 55 or 65 years) and (h) late adulthood (55 or 65 to death) (Brenman-Gibson, 1997, p 329). Each of Eriksons 8 stages involves a crisis that is characterised by two opposing emotional forces. Infancy, for instance, involves trust v mistrust and is characterised by the care of the mother for a child with an emphasis on touch and visual contact (Christiansen Palkovitz, 1998, p 133). Successful transition through this period results in individuals learning to trust in life and to have confidence in the future, even as problems during this period can lead to feelings of worthlessness and mistrust (Christiansen Palkovitz, 1998, p 133). The school age of 6 to 12 years is similarly characterised by the opposing forces of industry and inferiority (Brenman-Gibson, 1997, p 331). Individuals are capable of learning, building and achieving numerous skills and knowledge during this period, thereby developing feelings of industry. This stage of development can also lead to the experiencing of feelings of inferiority and inadequacy with peers and result in problems of self esteem and competence (Brenman-Gibson, 1997, p 331). Eriksons philosophy rests on two important themes, namely (a) that the world enlarges as people go along, and (b) that failure is cumulative (Douvan, 1997, p 16). The first theme is indisputable. Whilst the second is debatable, it is true that children who have to perforce deal with difficult circumstances find it challenging to negotiate later stages in their lives in comparison with others (Douvan, 1997, p 16). Various studies have revealed that children who were not stroked as infants find it difficult to connect with others in their adulthood. Eriksons theory of human development has gained wide acceptance and is often used as a framework for understanding the nature of issues that lead to current behaviour and to prepare for the coming stages (Douvan, 1997, p 16). The analysis of the Murray family members reveal that Jack Murray could have suffered from lack of stroking in his infancy, especially up to his adoption at the age of 6 months. This could have resulted in entrenched feelings of worthlessness and tendencies to mistrust the world. Such feelings, along with his experience of growing up as an adopted child, may have inculcated feelings of low self esteem and be causal in his current drinking problems. Whilst Lora has grown up in the presence of affectionate parents and a loving grandmother, she is now entering the school age and the coming 6 years will enlarge her contact with the world, where parents whilst still important will not be the complete authorities they have been until death. The application of Eriksons theory of human development helps social workers in understanding the various influences that individuals experience in the course of their lives and the roles of such influences in guiding their current behaviour and their emotional and social attitudes (Raeff Benson, 2003, p 61). Bronfenbrenners ecological model was first introduced in the early 1970s. His general ecological model is defined by 2 propositions (Brendtro, 2006, p 162). The first proposition states that human development, specifically in the early phases but also throughout life, occurs through processes that progressively become more complex and involve reciprocal interaction between active and evolving humans, who are bio-psychological in their approach, and the people, objects, and symbols in their immediate environment (Brendtro, 2006, p 162). Such interaction, when it occurs over extended time periods, on a regular basis are termed as proximal processes and can be found in activities between parent and children, children and children, and solitary or group play, as well as in reading, getting to know new skills and performing complex and difficult tasks (Brendtro, 2006, p 162). The second proposition states that the power, content, form and direction of these proximal processes influence development in a varying manner on account of the characteristics of developing individuals (Brendtro, 2006, p 162). Such development is also influenced by the environment in which such processes take place and the nature of development outcomes that are under study. The mother infant interaction, (an important proximal process) emerges as an important predictor of developmental outcomes (Brendtro, 2006, p 162). Bronfenbrenners theory defines 4 different types of systems, namely the Micro system, the Meso system, the Exo system and the Macro system, which shape human development (Austrian, 2002, p 43). The Micro system comprises of the family, classrooms and schools, and other systems in the proximal environment in which people operate. The Meso system represents the interaction of two micro systems, like the connection between the home and the school of a child (Austrian, 2002, p 43). The Exo system represents the environment that is external to the experience of an individual and in which his or her involvement is indirect, but which effects development, all the same. The workplace of the parents of a child is a relevant example of an Exo system. The Macro system represents the larger cultural context (Austrian, 2002, p 43). Bronfenbrenners theory perceives the environment of a child in terms of quality and context and attempts to explain differences between the knowledge, development and skills of individuals through the structure, support and guidance of the societies in which they exist (Ahuja, 2006, p 3). He states that interaction between over lapping eco systems affect people significantly. Applying Bronfenbrenners theory to the Murray family, it can be seen that Loras family and classrooms can be called the micro systems, which directly influence her working and development (Ahuja, 2006, p 3). When these two micro systems start working together to educate Lora, such education occurs through the Meso system. The society and culture in which Lora is being raised provides the underlying influence to these systems and is termed the Macro system. The comprehension of interaction of these systems helps in understanding the way in which children develop and the factors that influence failure and success (Ahuja, 2006, p 3). Analysis of various micro and macro systems can help social workers significantly in understanding the various influences that shape the development of children. Researchers have in fact specifically found the significance of macro systems to be causal to general depression and feelings of low self esteem in individuals (Ahuja, 2006, p 3). The application of Bronfenbrenners theory in the Murray family scenario enables the development of greater understanding on the influences of different micro and Macro systems on the development of Lora in her school age and can help social workers to adopt appropriate intervention methods. Role of Political and Social Processes on Human Development Whilst there is little doubt that the development of individuals is largely shaped by their home and school environments, sociological theory also places significant stress on the influence of larger society on such development (Grusec Hastings, 2008, p 42). All individuals grow up in specific political, cultural and social environments that shape their attitudes and behaviours and influence their development in specific ways. The particular societies in which people live are home to different types of religious, cultural and social attitudes, biases and beliefs (Grusec Hastings, 2008, p 42). Such political and social processes provide individuals with the means to participate within their own society, which itself contains shared customs, norms, traditions, values and social roles (Grusec Hastings, 2008, p 42). These processes are essentially life long, starting in childhood and continuing till death. Both Erikson and Bronfenbrenners theories deal with the process of socialisatio n but through different perspectives Such socialisation occurs through the influence of the family, religion, schools and peer groups, workplaces and the larger community (Berns, 2009, p 131). These processes are also influenced by local media and political thought. Children and young adults are significantly influenced by their peers. Such influences can often be negative and result in substance abuse, premature sexual activity and the need to live up to wrong expectations (Berns, 2009, p 131). Mass media plays an immense role in influencing human development. The constant exposure of children to glamour, sexual satisfaction and violence can influence the development of children and young adults in various ways (Berns, 2009, p 131). With regard to the Murray family, it can well be understood that the personal development of all concerned individuals is likely to be influenced by different political and social processes. The continuance of domestic violence at home can lead to feelings of distress in Lora, especially when she compares her domestic environment to that of her friends, and cause her to wish to shift to a more peaceful environment. Such socialisation processes can furthermore leads to feelings of shame about her background and low self esteem, lead her to shun her family and take solace in her peers and spark of truant and delinquent behaviour. Impact of Inequalities on Human Development Social work theory and knowledge primarily aims to diminish and eliminate the impact of inequalities on the lives of individuals (Neckerman, 2004, p 189). Inequalities can arise on account of various factors like income, education, gender and ethnic status. Such inequalities essentially serve to reduce excess of affected people to various facilities and reduce the prospects of their life outcomes and their chances to lead normal and enriching lives, inequalities in income can for example deprive the children of such families from various educational and other facilities and severely diminish their life outcomes (Neckerman, 2004, p 189). Such inequalities can also generate feelings of low esteem and result in suboptimal performance in and out of school during childhood and in the workplace in adult life. Numerous studies have revealed that children with poorly educated parents receive significantly lesser educational sustenance and support at home, which in turn affects their cognitiv e development and adversely influences their performance at school (Marger, 2004, p 86). Lora the 6 year old Murray child has until now done very well in school. The disturbed domestic situation in her house, especially the gender inequality between her parents and the domestic violence faced by her mother can well result in poorer educational support at home, especially when she is moving into the learning stage and needs it the most. Gender inequality has been widely accepted to be an important factor in the unequal life chances offered to men and women of societies across the world and has resulted in unequal development and life chances of the two sexes (Marger, 2004, p 86). Influence of Human Development Theories on Social Work Knowledge and Values Theories of human development help in shaping the ideas of readers on the essence of human behaviour (Austrian, 2002, p 56). It expands the understanding of individuals of the scope, the potential and complexity of human function. Whilst scholars of human development do not agree on or endorse a single theory, many of these theories provide new perspectives for the observation and interpretation of human behaviour (Austrian, 2002, p 56). Piagets theory of cognitive development has resulted in a new appreciation for the ways in which children construct sense and meaning out of their experiences (Raeff Benson, 2003, p 81). Eriksons psychosocial theory highlights the concept of identity, even as the social learning theory of Bandura has resulted in the widespread use of modelling to simulate conditions under which children increase their learning by observing and imitating the behaviour of others (Raeff Benson, 2003, p 81). The social work profession draws extensively on theories of h uman development for understanding the behaviour of individuals, with specific regard to the causal influences of such behaviour. An understanding of such theories not only enables social workers to understand the causes for human behaviour but also helps them to plan appropriate interventions to improve the social, emotional and economic conditions of people (Raeff Benson, 2003, p 81). It helps social workers to understand the dynamic interaction that takes place among human beings and the impact of social systems upon the lives of people. A greater understanding of such theories also helps social workers in appreciating human diversity, as well as the impact of different actions in helping human beings to access opportunities and services that foster realisation of social and economic justice (Austrian, 2002, p 56). Conclusions

Five Forces About Fast Food Chains

TETA? 2607Exercise2 PartI:briefintroductionoffastfoodrestaurants The industry I selected is fast food restaurants which are also named as quick service restaurants. As a special type of restaurant, fast food restaurant is characterized both by its fast food cuisine and by its self table service. The majority of fast food restaurants are part of a restaurant chain or franchise operation so that each branch could be provisioned by standardized ingredients and controlled by unified management. Within this industry, several leaders should be identified.Founded in 1940, McDonald’s Corporation is the world’s largest chain of hamburger fast food restaurants, daily serving around 68 million customers in 119 countries. (mcdonalds. com & burgerbusiness. com) In the year of 2011, the net income has reached 27 billion USD with net profit of 5. 5 billion USD. In the recent five years, McDonald’s revenue kept increasing and the average increase rate was 3. 1 %. ( McDonald†™s annual report,2011). Subway which is owned and operated by Doctor’s Associate is an American restaurant franchise which mainly sells sandwiches and salads.Subway, as the largest single-brand restaurant chain globally, keeps the fastest growing franchises in the world with 37000 restaurants in more than 100 countries. (subway. com) KFC (Kentucky Fried Chicken) is the world’s largest chain of fried chicken fast food restaurants. It is also the second largest restaurant chain after McDonald’s, with over 17,000 outlets in 105 countries. (KFC. com) PartII:IndustryanalysisbyFiveForces In 1979, Michael Porter published â€Å"How Competitive Force Shapes Strategy† in the Harvard Business Review (HBR) which started a revolution in the strategic field.He proposed five competitive forces which could to great extent determine the profitability of an industry and strategy’s formulation. In this part, Five Forces will be utilized to analyze the fast food re staurant industry. [Typetext] Page1 TETA? 2607Exercise2 Threat of Suppliers The suppliers of fast food restaurant mostly are meat producer, vegetable retailers, beverage companies and bakeries food retailers. As meat and vegetable are hard to differentiated, it is difficult for such a supplier to stand out.Also, most of these suppliers are local and small-sized while the quick service restaurants are international and giant; hence, it is easy for the fast food chain to be the dominant player. As for the fast food restaurants, in general, the switching costs are not high if they want to change their supplier of meat and vegetables. However, some supplier brands are quite powerful such as beverage company—Coca cola because their product is unique in the market. It is also possible for a supplier to be integrated forward such like building up corporation relationship with fast food restaurant to enlarge their supply power.To sum up, the supplier power in the fast food restaurant is low relatively especially among non-differentiated good suppliers. Threat of Buyers There are many small operators in the fast food restaurant industry which means buyers have many alternatives to choose the most suitable quick service restaurant. Meanwhile, there is almost no switching cost for customers to change their tastes. Additionally, the buying information is also abundant and available for the customers to select the most satisfactory restaurant. It seems that buyer power in the fast food restaurant is relatively high.However, the volume of each customer generally is not extremely important to overall sales of the companies and hence, each individual customer may not be valued much by the company. That diminishes the power of the buyer to some extent. Also, there is no threat of backward integration which means it is almost impossible for customers to build up cooperative relationship with fast food chains. Hence, buyer power would lowered by lack of possibilities of i ntegration. The concentration of buyers is low which also reduce the power of buyer.As for the fast food chain, the brand identity also helps them to decrease the threats from customers. To sum up, the threat from buyer is at the moderate level according to the above [Typetext]    Page2 TETA? 2607Exercise2 analysis. Threat of new entrants As the threat from new entrants, the first thing to consider is cost. Obviously, the entrance costs are relatively low when compared to other industries such like mobile phone manufacturing and information technology industry. However, the cost of brand building also plays an important role as brand identity is perceived as a significant factor of fast food restaurant’s strategy.In the fast food industry, the existing brands are already powerful like McDonald’s and Burger Kings so it will take time and expenditure for a fast food store to stand out. All in all, the cost of new entrants is not as low as what we assume previously. Sec ondly, the access to supply channels is quite easy because those raw materials for the fast food restaurant are available normal goods. However, there may exist exclusive contracts with suppliers so that it may make hard for new companies to enter this industry. Thirdly, another barrier to enter fast food industry is the access of distribution.Fast food chain always signed exclusive contracts with the college, supermarket, fuel stations and others and hence, it is much difficult for a new entrant to build its own distribution channels. The economies of scale and the access of distribution are major barriers that firms face in this industry. Additionally, it is also difficult to differentiate your product in this industry because the product is fairly similar when we divided fast food into different categories (hamburgers, sandwiches, pizzas). To sum up, the threat of new entrants is moderate as we have to consider from all aspects. Threat of substitutesAlthough the switching costs o f customers are quite low, the threat from substitutes is still at low level. The main substitutes of fast food restaurant are pre-cooked food, mid-range restaurants or supermarket products. However, eating in a normal restaurant is much more expensive and time consuming. Pre-cooked food is cheap while the facilities to warm it up may not be available. Hence, fast food still held [Typetext]    Page3 TETA? 2607Exercise2 advantages no matter from the price or comfort level. Threat of rivalry The number of competitive rivals with similar products and service for the same customer group is high.As mentioned before, the initial expenditure to set up a fast food restaurant is not quite so high and hence, many small scale quick service restaurants may try to enter it. Also, there are no high exit barriers because it is easy to close restaurants as the relatively low fixed costs. Meanwhile, the market growth is limited because the market gets saturated with a certain amount of restaurants , fast food shop or delivery services. It seems that the threat of rivalry is relatively high in the fast food restaurant industry. All the above analysis is summarized in the following diagram. Figure 1) Figure  1 PartIII:Additionaldiscussionaboutcompetitivecondition Apart from the five forces that I have mentioned before, there are still some other [Typetext]    Page4 TETA? 2607Exercise2 forces which also affect competitive condition. In the first place, culture plays a more important part in deciding people’s food consumption than before. According to Maddock’s (2004) research, there is a correlational relationship between the number of residents per fast food restaurant and the square miles per fast food restaurants with state-level obesity prevalence.This result indicates that fast food restaurants do make a significant contribution to the people’s obesity level. The problem of obesity has already raised public’s attention and people concern more about the nutrition of the food rather than price and convenience. In addition, people also realize that fast food restaurant also to a great extent contribute to the problem of childhood obesity. Another research (Harris, Schwartz &Brownell, 2010) also reveals that Teens between the ages of 13 and 17 purchase 800 to 1,200 calories in an average fast food meal, including 30% or more of calories from sugar and saturated fat.As the obesity would threaten human’s health, more and more experts suggest that people especially children should eat fast food as little as possible. Hence, there is an overall trend that the consumer group of fast food is squeezing. As the market is declining, each company within this industry has to compete harder to win more consumers. In this way, external factors like culture, healthy reports also play an important force to decide the competition level of this industry. Another limitation of five force framework is that some companies in the same in dustry are cooperators unlike the original assumption that there are all competitors.For example, KFC, pizza hut and Taco Bell are operated by the same corporation—Yum!. If they are not pure competitors in the market, they increase the entry barrier through reallocating their resource and supply and distribution channels. For example, these three restaurants could share the same logistic center to enhance the efficiency of company and save the cost as well. This kind of corporation within the same industry was ignored by classic Five Force Analysis which emphasis the pure competition relationship between companies. PartIVConclusion [Typetext]    Page5 TETA? 2607Exercise2Let take McDonald’s as an example to analysis the whole industry. Although there is tense competition in this industry that many small fast food businesses fight with each other to improve their customer base, McDonald’s still held the absolute advantage in its customer scale. Just like the abo ve analysis, the enter barrier of this industry is not so high. But McDonald’s own strong brand identity and established network and hence, the new small entrants could not threaten to McDonald’s. The buyers still hold power to some extent as the switching cost is low and the buying information is abundant.However, McDonald’s still have an advantage in location and convenience. As McDonald’s has already established the strong network with suppliers, (e. g. cooperated with Coca-Cola), the threats from suppliers are not so intense. Under the current trend, the down-sizing of customer group is the major problem that McDonald’s has to face. McDonald’s have already implemented some strategies such like launching non-fried product and enclosed the detailed nutrition information of the food. After five forces analysis, McDonald’s still should be favorable in the next several years.However, if a new small business plan to enter this industry, it will face a large number of challenges such like establishing supply channels and distribution channels and building its own brand identity. All in all, fast food restaurant is still saturated and unfavorable for business which wants to entry. Reference: Harris, J. L. , Schwartz, M. B. & Brownell,K. D. (2010), Evaluating Fast Food Nutrition and Marketing to Youth. Fastfoodmarketing. org Maddock, J. 2004. The Relationship Between Obesity and the Prevalence of Fast Food Restaurants: State-Level Analysis. American Journal of Health Promotion: November/December 2004, Vol. 19, No. , pp. 137-143. [Typetext]    Page6 TETA? 2607Exercise2 Porter,M. E. 1978. How competitive forces shape strategy. Harvard Business Review Strategy: http://polisci2. ucsd. edu/snunnari/HBR_on_Strategy_23_41. pdf#page=25 McDonald’s official website: http://www. mcdonalds. com/us/en/home. html Burgerbusiness. com:http://www. burgerbusiness. com/? p=9168 McDonald’s 2011 annual report: http://www. aboutmcdonalds. com/content/dam/AboutMcDonalds/Investors/Investors %202012/2011%20Annual%20Report%20Final. pdf Subway official website: http://www. subway. com/subwayroot/default. aspx KFC’s official website: http://www. kfc. com/ [Typetext] Page7

The Demographic and Psycho-graphic Market Segmentation

The criteria used to develop the market segment for R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co.†s new brand of cigarette called â€Å"Dakota† is mainly that of demographics, and psyhcographics. The target market in this case appears to be poorly educated, virile white females age 18-20, who enjoy being around their boyfriends and doing whatever their boyfriends are doing, for example going to â€Å"Hot Rod shows, Tractor Pulls, cruising, and going to parties†. This target market was most likely selected for two main reasons. The first is because of the enormous profits to be gained from this particular group and the second is because of this group†s lack of education and low self-regard. The marketing strategies used in this article clearly define demographic and psychographic market segmentation. Demographic segmentation consists of gender, age, income, family size, family life cycle, occupation, and education. The target market in this article consists of females, age 18-20, single, with no more education than high school. This matches most of the criteria for demographic segmentation. Psychographic segmentation consists of identifying certain lifestyles based on the consumer†s values, activities, interests, opinions, and demographics. This article conveys that these women are Strivers, which means they are unsure of self and need approval from others. This group also seems to be search of some type of relief from their current lives (relief seekers). All of this data provides an idea of this groups values as well its activities and interests. Which makes this targeted group so vulnerable to tobacco companies marketing efforts. This market was selected because of its size and growth, and also probably because of this group†s lack of education. This group of females† aged 18-20 are the only group of Americans whose rate of smoking continues to increase. The reason why this group†s rate continues to grow is because they really don†t know better and if they do they really don†t care. This creats a wonderful opportunity for lucrative profits from the tobacco companies. This form of marketing is called concentrated marketing, which focuses on one segment of the market. Marketing companies perform market research by collecting and analyzing data and turning this data into usable information. This Information includes demographics as well as phycographics. These young women already have the desire to consume cigarettes and R.J. Reynolds is making sure they consume their particular brand of cigarettes instead of others.

India s Economic Growth Rate And Economic Development

India’s political system allows the economic shift from a protectionist stand point to an open market source. India has recorded a growth rate of 7.4%, an increase from its previous value of 7.0%. The economic performance can be augmented through its policies, in specific monetary policy. Interest rates were cut to 6.75%. This reduction meant that borrowing and lending money was cheaper, having a positive effect on the disposable income of individuals. India’s Real GDP is 7.4%, considerably higher than the rest of the world (2.8% and 2.9%). This comparison of growth depicts India’s accelerated economic growth rate and economic development. India’s primary sector has helped boost the economy. The employment level, due to the Five Year plan, has increased in the sectors of forestry, fishing and logging. The uncertainty of climatic conditions, has forced a strong shift into the secondary and tertiary sectors. The manufacturing output climbed to 9.3% in the previous quarter while finance and insurance services growth has had an increase to 9.7%. The growth of the financial sector has been a direct result of the reforms in place that boomed the stock market, assisting large firms finance their expansions. To understand economic development, we have to look at it from more than the viewpoint of capital accumulation. The idea of Total Factor Productivity (TFP) plays a major role. TFP is the increase in the overall output without the increase in the level of input, allowing forShow MoreRelatedEssay on India China Economic Growth893 Words   |  4 PagesCATALYSTS TO GROWTH IN CHINA AND INDIA. 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